The Most Influential People Across History
Find the most influential people in 24 academic disciplines and numerous subdisciplines
Find famous and important people related to your research. This is an excellent tool for research papers, topic papers, and building a bibliography. Using our influence-based algorithm, our rankings synthesize data from Wikipedia, Wikidata, Semantic Scholar, and CrossRef.
Students and researchers now have a fast and reliable way to find influential thinkers from 24 disciplines and 300 sub-disciplines (and growing). If you want to find history’s most influential philsosophers, or the world’s most influential mathematicians currently, now you can.
We also provide custom rankings of people by discipline as well as interviews with influential academics who are currently active.
To use this tool, select the discipline (and optional subdiscipline) relevant to your research, and specify influential academics by history, world, or US. Even results that are counterintuitive are often enlightening (our algorithm always picks up a signal).
Methodology: How and Why We Rank by Influence …
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List of the most influential people in Biology,
#851
Barney S. Graham
#17311
Overall Influence
2000 - Present (24 years)
Barney S. Graham is an American immunologist, virologist, and clinical trials physician. He is currently Professor of Medicine and Microbiology, Biochemistry, & Immunology and Senior Advisor for Global Health Equity at Morehouse School of Medicine in Atlanta. He is the former deputy director of the Vaccine Research Center , part of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases , National Institutes of Health . During his tenure at the VRC, Graham also served as chief of the Viral Pathogenesis Laboratory.
Go to Profile#852
Georges F. Koob
#33006
Overall Influence
#853
Robert McNeill Alexander
#21347
Overall Influence
1934 - 2016 (82 years)
Robert McNeill Alexander, CBE FRS was a British zoologist and a leading authority in the field of biomechanics. For thirty years he was Professor of Zoology at the University of Leeds. Early life and education Alexander was born in Lisburn, Northern Ireland, one of the four sons of Robert Alexander and his wife Janet McNeill. His father was the chief engineer of the city of Belfast. His mother was a novelist and playwright who wrote more than 20 children’s books and two opera libretti. He was educated at Tonbridge School and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge where he gained an MA and a PhD. His PhD research at Cambridge was supervised by Professor Sir James Gray, FRS.
Go to Profile#854
Donald Kennedy
#7608
Overall Influence
1931 - 2020 (89 years)
Donald Kennedy was an American scientist, public administrator, and academic. He served as Commissioner of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration , President of Stanford University , and Editor-in-Chief of Science . Following this, he was named president emeritus of Stanford University; Bing Professor of Environmental Science and Policy, emeritus; and senior fellow of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies.
Go to Profile#855
David Hogness
#25173
Overall Influence
1925 - 2019 (94 years)
David Swenson Hogness was an American biochemist, geneticist, and developmental biologist and emeritus professor at the Stanford University School of Medicine in Stanford, California. Life Hogness spent most of his youth in Chicago, the son of Thorfin R. Hogness and Phoebe S. Hogness. His parents were both children of immigrants and graduates of the University of Minnesota; his father later received a PhD in chemistry from the University of California at Berkeley, taught at Berkeley, and in 1930 joined the faculty at the University of Chicago.
Go to Profile#856
Zdeněk Neubauer
#13689
Overall Influence
1942 - 2016 (74 years)
Zdeněk Neubauer was a Czech philosopher and biologist, remarkable especially for original interpretations in science history and epistemology. Biography Born in Brno to family of the Brno normative legal school representative Zdeněk Neubauer , Neubauer graduated from Charles University in Prague . During his activity in Laboratorio Internazionale di Genetica e Biofisica in Naples he made several discoveries in genetics. In 1982 left the university because of nonconformist attitudes . After that, he was mainly a philosopher , publishing underground. Since 1990, he has been a member of the dep...
Go to Profile#857
Karl J. Niklas
#22108
Overall Influence
1948 - Present (76 years)
Karl Joseph Niklas is the Liberty Hyde Bailey Professor emeritus in the Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, at Cornell University. He is best known for his work on plant biomechanics, allometry, and functional morphology, and for his long-standing contributions to understanding plant evolutionary biology, particularly early land plant evolutionary diversification patterns and morphospaces.
Go to Profile#858
Paul H. Harvey
#26613
Overall Influence
1947 - Present (77 years)
Paul H. Harvey is a British evolutionary biologist. He is Professor of Zoology and was head of the zoology department at the University of Oxford from 1998 to 2011 and Secretary of the Zoological Society of London from 2000 to 2011, holding these posts in conjunction with a professorial fellowship at Jesus College, Oxford.
Go to Profile#859
Suzanne Cory
#17805
Overall Influence
1942 - Present (82 years)
Suzanne Cory is an Australian molecular biologist. She has worked on the genetics of the immune system and cancer and has lobbied her country to invest in science. She is married to fellow scientist Jerry Adams, also a WEHI scientist, whom she met while studying for her PhD at the University of Cambridge, England.
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Thomas Carr
#18909
Overall Influence
1950 - Present (74 years)
Thomas D. Carr is a vertebrate paleontologist who received his PhD from the University of Toronto in 2005. He is now a member of the biology faculty at Carthage College in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Much of his work centers on tyrannosauroid dinosaurs. Carr published the first quantitative analysis of tyrannosaurid ontogeny in 1999, establishing that several previously recognized genera and species of tyrannosaurids were in fact juveniles of other recognized taxa. Carr shared the Lanzendorf Prize for scientific illustration at the 2000 Society of Vertebrate Paleontology conference for the artwork in this article.
Go to Profile#861
J. Philip Grime
#23460
Overall Influence
1935 - 2021 (86 years)
John Philip Grime was an ecologist and emeritus professor at the University of Sheffield. He is best known for the universal adaptive strategy theory and the twin filter model of community assembly with Simon Pierce, eco-evolutionary dynamics, the unimodal relationship between species richness and site productivity , the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, and DST classification .
Go to Profile#862
Richard M. Durbin
#24056
Overall Influence
1960 - Present (64 years)
Richard Michael Durbin is a British computational biologist and Al-Kindi Professor of Genetics at the University of Cambridge. He also serves as an associate faculty member at the Wellcome Sanger Institute where he was previously a senior group leader.
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David Reich
#9556
Overall Influence
1974 - Present (50 years)
David Emil Reich is an American geneticist known for his research into the population genetics of ancient humans, including their migrations and the mixing of populations, discovered by analysis of genome-wide patterns of mutations. He is professor in the department of genetics at the Harvard Medical School, and an associate of the Broad Institute. Reich was highlighted as one of Nature's 10 for his contributions to science in 2015. He received the Dan David Prize in 2017, the NAS Award in Molecular Biology, the Wiley Prize, and the Darwin–Wallace Medal in 2019. In 2021 he was awarded the Mas...
Go to Profile#864
F. Stuart Chapin III
#24541
Overall Influence
1944 - Present (80 years)
F. Stuart Chapin III is a professor of Ecology at the Department of Biology and Wildlife of the Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska. He was President of the Ecological Society of America from August 2010 until 2011.
Go to Profile#865
Stanislav Grof
#504
Overall Influence
1931 - Present (93 years)
Stanislav "Stan" Grof is a Czech-born psychiatrist who has been living in the United States since the 1960s. Grof is one of the principal developers of transpersonal psychology and research into the use of non-ordinary states of consciousness for purposes of psychological healing, deep self-exploration, and obtaining growth and insights into the human psyche. In 1993, Grof received an Honorary Award from the Association for Transpersonal Psychology for major contributions to and development of the field of transpersonal psychology, given at the occasion of the 25th Anniversary Convocation held in Asilomar, California.
Go to Profile#866
Raymond B. Huey
#26705
Overall Influence
1944 - Present (80 years)
Raymond Brunson Huey is a biologist specializing in evolutionary physiology. He has taught at the University of Washington , and he earned his Ph.D. in biology at Harvard University under E. E. Williams. He has recently been the chair of the UW Department of Biology, but a retirement celebration was held on 4 Oct. 2013 in Seattle.
Go to Profile#867
Dave Goulson
#18749
Overall Influence
1965 - Present (59 years)
Dave Goulson is Professor of Biology at the University of Sussex. Specializing in the ecology and conservation of insects, particularly bumblebees, Goulson is the author of several books, including Bumblebees: Their Behaviour and Ecology , Silent Earth: Averting the Insect Apocalypse , and more than 200 academic articles. In 2006 he founded the Bumblebee Conservation Trust, a charity that aims to reverse the decline in the bumblebee population.
Go to Profile#868
John Speakman
#26708
Overall Influence
1958 - Present (66 years)
John Roger Speakman is a British biologist working at the University of Aberdeen, Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, for which he was Director from 2007 to 2011. He leads the University's Energetics Research Group, which is one of the world's leading groups using doubly labeled water to investigate energy expenditure and balance in animals. Between 2011-2020, he was a '1000 talents' Professor at the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, in Beijing, China, where he ran the molecular energetics group. In 2020 he moved to the Shenzhen I...
Go to Profile#869
Colin Blakemore
#8545
Overall Influence
1944 - 2022 (78 years)
Sir Colin Blakemore, , Hon was a British neurobiologist, specialising in vision and the development of the brain. He was Yeung Kin Man Professor of Neuroscience and senior fellow of the Hong Kong Institute for Advanced Study at City University of Hong Kong. He was a distinguished senior fellow in the Institute of Philosophy, School of Advanced Study, University of London and Emeritus Professor of Neuroscience at the University of Oxford and a past Chief Executive of the British Medical Research Council . He was best known to the public as a communicator of science but also as the target of a long-running animal rights campaign.
Go to Profile#870
Eric Charnov
#18258
Overall Influence
1947 - Present (77 years)
Eric Lee Charnov is an American evolutionary ecologist. He is best known for his work on foraging, especially the marginal value theorem, and life history theory, especially sex allocation and scaling/allometric rules. He is a MacArthur Fellow and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Two of his papers are Science Citation Classics.
Go to Profile#871
John B. West
#23572
Overall Influence
1928 - Present (96 years)
Professor John B. West FRCP is a respiratory physiologist who made major research contributions in the area of ventilation-perfusion relationships in the lung. He led a medical research expedition to Mount Everest in 1981, which investigated the influence of altitude and exertion on human physiology.
Go to Profile#872
Ruth Hubbard
#7275
Overall Influence
1924 - 2016 (92 years)
Ruth Hubbard was a professor of biology at Harvard University, where she was the first woman to hold a tenuredd professorship position in biology. During her active research career from the 1940s to the 1960s, she made important contributions to the understanding of the biochemistry and photochemistry of vision in vertebrates and invertebrates. In 1967, she and George Wald shared the Paul Karrer Gold Medal for their work in this area.
Go to Profile#873
Philip Bourne
#14509
Overall Influence
1953 - Present (71 years)
Philip Eric Bourne is an Australian bioinformatician, non-fiction writer, and businessman. He is currently Stephenson Chair of Data Science and Director of the School of Data Science and Professor of Biomedical Engineering and was the first associate director for Data Science at the National Institutes of Health, where his projects include managing the Big Data to Knowledge initiative, and formerly Associate Vice Chancellor at UCSD. He has contributed to textbooks and is a strong supporter of open-access literature and software. His diverse interests have spanned structural biology, medical i...
Go to Profile#874
Eve Marder
#16754
Overall Influence
1948 - Present (76 years)
Eve Marder is a University Professor and the Victor and Gwendolyn Beinfield Professor of Neuroscience at Brandeis University. At Brandeis, Marder is also a member of the Volen National Center for Complex Systems. Dr. Marder is known for her pioneering work on small neuronal networks which her team has interrogated via a combination of complementary experimental and theoretical techniques.
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Rana Dajani
#13131
Overall Influence
2000 - Present (24 years)
Rana Dajani is a Palestinian-Jordanian molecular biologist and tenured professor of biology and biotechnology at Hashemite University. She earned her Ph.D. in molecular biology from the University of Iowa. Dajani is an expert on genetics of Circassian and Chechen populations in Jordan, also on conducting genome-wide association studies on diabetes and cancer on stem cells. Her work in stem cell research initiated the development of the Stem Cell Research Ethics Law and all regulations in Jordan. She is an advocate for the biological evolution theory in relation to the religion of Islam, and b...
Go to Profile#876
William F. Martin
#26361
Overall Influence
1957 - Present (67 years)
William Martin is an American botanist and microbiologist, currently Head of the Institut für Molekulare Evolution, Heinrich Heine Universität, Düsseldorf. Born in Bethesda, Maryland, Martin was educated at Richland College, Dallas, Texas, and Texas A&M University. After working as a carpenter in Dallas, Martin moved to Hannover, Germany, and obtained his university Diploma from Technische Universität Hannover in 1985. Martin's PhD is from Max-Planck-Institut für Züchtungsforschung, Cologne, where he did postdoctoral research, followed by further postdoctoral work at Institut für Genetik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, where he obtained his Habilitation in 1992.
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Georg Nagel
#18740
Overall Influence
1953 - Present (71 years)
Georg Nagel is a biophysicist and professor at the Department for Neurophysiology at the University of Würzburg in Germany. His research is focused on microbial photoreceptors and the development of optogenetic tools.
Go to Profile#878
Joseph R. Ecker
#22255
Overall Influence
1956 - Present (68 years)
Joseph R. Ecker is an American plant biologist and molecular biologist. He is Professor of Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory and Director of the Genomic Analysis Laboratory at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. He is also an Investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. He holds the Salk International Council Chair in Genetics.
Go to Profile#879
Tom Rapoport
#19215
Overall Influence
1947 - Present (77 years)
Tom Abraham Rapoport is a German-American cell biologist who studies protein transport in cells. Currently, he is a professor at Harvard Medical School and a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, he grew up in East Germany. In 1995 he accepted an offer to become a professor at Harvard Medical School. In 1997 he became an investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. He is a member of the American and German National Academies of Science.
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Martin J. Blaser
#27376
Overall Influence
1948 - Present (76 years)
Martin J. Blaser is the director of the Center for Advanced Biotechnology and Medicine at Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences and the Henry Rutgers Chair of the Human Microbiome and Professor of Medicine and Pathology and Laboratory Medicine at the Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School in New Jersey.
Go to Profile#881
Murdoch Mitchison
#26483
Overall Influence
1922 - 2011 (89 years)
The Honourable John Murdoch Mitchison FRS, FRSE was a British zoologist. Background Family Mitchison was the son of the Labour politician Dick Mitchison and his wife, the writer Naomi . The biologist J.B.S. Haldane was his uncle, and the physiologist John Scott Haldane was his maternal grandfather. His elder brother is the bacteriologist Denis Mitchison, and his younger brother is the zoologist Avrion Mitchison. His wife was the historian Rosalind Mitchison.
Go to Profile#882
Mu-ming Poo
#21636
Overall Influence
1948 - Present (76 years)
Mu-ming Poo is a Chinese-American neuroscientist. He is the Paul Licht Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley and the Founding Director of the Shanghai-based Institute of Neuroscience of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He was awarded the 2016 Gruber Prize in Neuroscience for his pioneering work on synaptic plasticity. At ION, Poo led a team of scientists that produced the world's first truly cloned primates, a pair of crab-eating macaques called Zhongzhong and Huahua in 2017, using somatic cell nuclear transfer .
Go to Profile#883
Seyed E. Hasnain
#21453
Overall Influence
1954 - Present (70 years)
Seyed Ehtesham Hasnain is an Indian academic. Biography Hasnain spent several years at the Texas A&M University, U.S. and returned to India in 1987 to work as a Staff Scientist at the National Institute of Immunology . Hasnain was appointed as the first director of Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics in February 1999. He served as the 7th Vice-Chancellor of University of Hyderabad from 2005 to 2011. He took charge as Vice-Chancellor of Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi on 2 September 2016 and served the office till 2021.
Go to Profile#884
Ryuzo Yanagimachi
#13350
Overall Influence
1928 - Present (96 years)
Ryuzo Yanagimachi was a Japanese-born, American-based scientist. He made numerous key contributions to the study of mammalian fertilization, and he was also a pioneer in the cloning field. Accordingly, he assisted in fertilization technologies such as in vitro fertilization and direct sperm injection into the egg , which are widely used today in human infertility clinics throughout the world. In 1997, his laboratory at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa successfully cloned mice using the Honolulu technique.
Go to Profile#885
Earl Davie
#22504
Overall Influence
1927 - 2020 (93 years)
Earl Warren Davie was an American biochemist. He was a professor emeritus of biochemistry at the University of Washington. Davie studied the blood proteins involved in coagulation and was among the first scientists to describe the steps of the clotting process. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
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Henry A. Lardy
#27414
Overall Influence
1917 - 2010 (93 years)
Henry A. Lardy NAS AAA&S APS was a biochemist and professor emeritus in the biochemistry department at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1958, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965, and the American Philosophical Society in 1976. Research in Lardy's laboratory centered on elucidating the mechanisms underlying metabolism.
Go to Profile#887
Carl F. Nathan
#20474
Overall Influence
1946 - Present (78 years)
Carl F. Nathan is the chair of the department of microbiology and immunology at Weill Cornell Medicine and a former dean of the Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences at Cornell University. Some of his most notable work has been in the characterization of IFNγ, TGF-β, and TNFα in immunology. The Nathan lab studies the immune response to M. tuberculosis.
Go to Profile#888
Thomas S. Ray
#12379
Overall Influence
1954 - Present (70 years)
Thomas S. Ray is an evolutionary biologist known for his research in tropical biology, digital evolution, and the human mind. Early life and education Ray earned his undergraduate degrees in biology and chemistry at Florida State University. He then proceeded to Harvard University, where he received his master's and Doctorate in Biology, specializing in plant behavior.
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David Epel
#26486
Overall Influence
1950 - Present (74 years)
David Epel is a researcher at Hopkins Marine Station in Pacific Grove, California, and a Professor in the Department of Biology at Stanford University. Epel earned his Ph.D. at University of California Berkeley under Daniel Mazia. He arrived at Hopkins Marine Station in 1965. Subsequently, Professor Epel spent seven years at University of California San Diego's Scripps Institution of Oceanography. He completed a postdoc with Britton Chance at the University of Pennsylvania. Professor Epel has been a Guggenheim Fellow, and is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science...
Go to Profile#890
Marc Tessier-Lavigne
#9540
Overall Influence
1959 - Present (65 years)
Marc Trevor Tessier-Lavigne is a Canadian-American neuroscientist who was the eleventh president of Stanford University. Previously, he was a professor at the University of California, San Francisco and then president of Rockefeller University in New York City. He was formerly executive vice president for research and chief scientific officer at Genentech. He is a member of the Cure Alzheimer's Fund's Scientific Advisory Board. As of 2021, he is on the boards of directors of Denali Therapeutics and Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, as well as the scientific advisory boards of Denali Therapeutics an...
Go to Profile#891
William E. Rees
#8472
Overall Influence
1943 - Present (81 years)
William Rees, FRSC , is Professor Emeritus at the University of British Columbia and former director of the School of Community and Regional Planning at UBC. Rees taught at the University of British Columbia from 1969–70 until his retirement in 2011–12, but has since continued his writing and research. His primary interest is in public policy and planning relating to global environmental trends and the ecological conditions for sustainable socioeconomic development. He is the originator of the "ecological footprint" concept and co-developer of the method.
Go to Profile#892
Janet Rossant
#27152
Overall Influence
1950 - Present (74 years)
Janet Rossant is president and Science Director at Gairdner Foundation, a senior scientist in the developmental & stem cell biology program, chief of research at the Hospital for Sick Children Research Institute, university professor at the University of Toronto teaching molecular genetics, pediatrics, and obstetrics/gynecology. He is deputy scientific director for the Canadian Stem Cell Network and senior editor of the journal eLife. She earned a B.A. in zoology from the University of Oxford and a Ph.D. in mammalian development from the University of Cambridge. Rossant uses live imaging, pro...
Go to Profile#893
Kevin de Queiroz
#25542
Overall Influence
1950 - Present (74 years)
Kevin de Queiroz is a vertebrate, evolutionary, and systematic biologist. He has worked in the phylogenetics and evolutionary biology of squamate reptiles, the development of a unified species concept and of a phylogenetic approach to biological nomenclature, and the philosophy of systematic biology.
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Michael E. Soulé
#22403
Overall Influence
1936 - 2020 (84 years)
Michael Ellman Soulé was an American biologist, known for his work in promoting the idea of conservation biology. Soulé was born in San Diego, California, the son of Berenice and Herman Herzoff. His father died when he was two, and he was adopted by his stepfather Alan Soulé. He earned a Ph.D. in 1964 at Stanford University in Biology under Paul R. Ehrlich, and later became Research Professor in Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz. His Ph.D. thesis of 167 pages was entitled: Evolution and population phenetics of the side-blotched lizards on the islands in the Gul...
Go to Profile#895
Sten Grillner
#22760
Overall Influence
1941 - Present (83 years)
Sten Grillner is a Swedish neurophysiologist and distinguished professor at the Karolinska Institute's Nobel Institute for Neurophysiology in Stockholm where he is the director of that institute. He is considered one of the world's foremost experts in the cellular bases of motor behaviour. His research is focused on understanding the cellular bases of motor behaviour; in particular, he has shown how neuronal circuits in the spine help control rhythmic movements, such as those needed for locomotion. He is the current secretary general of the International Brain Research Organization and president of the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies .
Go to Profile#896
Charles Nemeroff
#14702
Overall Influence
1949 - Present (75 years)
Charles Barnet Nemeroff is an American psychiatrist known for his works about depression. He is the author of numerous textbooks, papers, and clinical studies. Early life and education Nemeroff was born in New York City and attended the City College of New York. During his freshman year at the college, he visited Manhattan State Hospital where he decided to pursue his career studying mental illness. He also participated in an undergraduate research program sponsored by the National Science Foundation. Nemeroff went to work as a technician in a neuropathology laboratory in Boston after graduating in 1970.
Go to Profile#897
Yves Lévy
#10878
Overall Influence
1957 - Present (67 years)
Yves Lévy is a French physician researcher and professor of clinical immunology who served as CEO of the French Institute of Health and Medical Research from 2014 until 2018. Early life and education Lévy was born in Casablanca, Morocco, and arrived in France with his parents in 1973. He was naturalised one and a half years later. His passion was literature, before he turned to medicine. After studying medicine and finishing his residency he dedicated himself to HIV research in 1986.
Go to Profile#898
Leslie B. Vosshall
#18776
Overall Influence
1965 - Present (59 years)
Leslie Birgit Vosshall is an American neurobiologist and currently a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator and the Robin Chemers Neustein Professor of Neurogenetics and Behavior at The Rockefeller University. In 2022 she was appointed Chief Scientific Officer and vice president of HHMI. She is also the director of the Kavli Neural Systems Institute at The Rockefeller University. Vosshall, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, is known for her contributions to the field of olfaction, particularly for the discovery and subsequent characterization of the insect olfactory receptor family, and the genetic basis of chemosensory behavior in mosquitoes.
Go to Profile#899
Per-Olof Åstrand
#20402
Overall Influence
1922 - 2015 (93 years)
Per-Olof Åstrand was a Swedish professor of physiology at the Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences in Stockholm 1970–1977, and 1977–1988 at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden, and a member of the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet . Åstrand is considered a "pioneer", "legend" and one of the "founding fathers" of modern exercise physiology.
Go to Profile#900
Simon LeVay
#5715
Overall Influence
1943 - Present (81 years)
Simon LeVay is a British-American neuroscientist. He received a bachelor's degree in natural sciences from the University of Cambridge in 1966, a Ph.D. in Neuroanatomy at the University of Göttingen in Germany, and completed his postdoctoral fellowship at Harvard Medical School in 1974.
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