The Most Influential People Across History
Find the most influential people in 24 academic disciplines and numerous subdisciplines
Find famous and important people related to your research. This is an excellent tool for research papers, topic papers, and building a bibliography. Using our influence-based algorithm, our rankings synthesize data from Wikipedia, Wikidata, Semantic Scholar, and CrossRef.
Students and researchers now have a fast and reliable way to find influential thinkers from 24 disciplines and 300 sub-disciplines (and growing). If you want to find history’s most influential philsosophers, or the world’s most influential mathematicians currently, now you can.
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List of the most influential people in Philosophy,
#16351
Ananda Coomaraswamy
1877 - 1947 (70 years)
Ananda Kentish Muthu Coomaraswamy was a Ceylonese metaphysician, historian and a philosopher of Indian art who was an early interpreter of Indian culture to the West. In particular, he is described as "the groundbreaking theorist who was largely responsible for introducing ancient Indian art to the West".
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P. D. Ouspensky
1878 - 1947 (69 years)
Pyotr Demianovich Ouspenskii was a Russian philosopher and esotericist known for his expositions of the early work of the Greek-Armenian teacher of esoteric doctrine George Gurdjieff. He met Gurdjieff in Moscow in 1915, and was associated with the ideas and practices originating with Gurdjieff from then on. He taught ideas and methods based in the Gurdjieff system for 25 years in England and the United States, although he separated from Gurdjieff personally in 1924, for reasons that are explained in the last chapter of his book In Search of the Miraculous.
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Leopold von Henning
1791 - 1866 (75 years)
Leopold August Wilhelm Dorotheus von Henning was a German philosopher associated with the Hegelian Right. Biography Leopold von Henning was born in Gotha in 1791 to Colonel Christian von Henning . He studied history, law and philosophy at Heidelberg University; and, following participation in the wars of liberation, economics at the University of Vienna. In 1815 he began his training in Königsberg in der Neumark. After re-participation in the war, he held a clerkship in Erfurt, and from 1818 onwards, lived in Berlin. He was a student of Hegel's and a friend of Friedrich Wilhelm Carové. Due to the Persecution of Demagogues, he was arrested on 8 July 1819 but released ten weeks later.
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Timon of Phlius
320 BC - 230 BC (90 years)
Timon of Phlius was an Ancient Greek philosopher from the Hellenistic period, who was the student of Pyrrho. Unlike Pyrrho, who wrote nothing, Timon wrote satirical philosophical poetry called Silloi as well as a number of prose writings. These have been lost, but the fragments quoted in later authors allow a rough outline of his philosophy to be reconstructed.
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Andreas Vesalius
1514 - 1564 (50 years)
Andries van Wezel , latinised as Andreas Vesalius , was a Flemish anatomist and physician who wrote De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem , what is considered to be one of the most influential books on human anatomy and a major advance over the long-dominant work of Galen. Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was born in Brussels, which was then part of the Habsburg Netherlands. He was a professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V.
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Friedrich Wilhelm Carové
1789 - 1852 (63 years)
Friedrich Wilhelm Carové was a German philosopher and publicist. Biography He was a lawyer, held some judicial offices, was made doctor of philosophy by the University of Heidelberg, and officiated for a short time as professor at Breslau. He was one of the founders of the Heidelberg Burschenschaft, and participated in the famous Wartburg festival. He was afterward a member of the provisional German parliament of 1848. Carové was a pupil of Hegel's between 1816 and 1818 and was chosen by Hegel as the first interpreter of his thought. They were in friendly terms for all their life. Due to his...
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Gotthard Günther
1900 - 1984 (84 years)
Gotthard Günther was a German philosopher. Biography Günther was born in Arnsdorf, Hirschberg im Riesengebirge, Prussian Silesia . From 1921 to 1933, Günther studied sinology and philosophy at the universities of Heidelberg and Berlin, and wrote his doctor's thesis on Hegel in 1933 under the guidance of Eduard Spranger. From 1935 to 1937, he worked at the institute of Arnold Gehlen at the University of Leipzig, publishing Christliche Metaphysik und das Schicksal des modernen Bewusstseins . He was a member of the Leipzig School.
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Nikos Kazantzakis
1883 - 1957 (74 years)
Nikos Kazantzakis was a Greek writer, journalist, politician, poet and philosopher. Widely considered a giant of modern Greek literature, he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in nine different years, and remains the most translated Greek author worldwide.
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Georg Misch
1878 - 1965 (87 years)
Georg Misch was a German philosopher. Life Of Jewish descent, Misch was the pupil and son-in-law of Wilhelm Dilthey. Misch attempted to further develop Dilthey's life-philosophical hermeneutics, in particular in relation to the study of logic, comparative philosophy and autobiography. Misch edited a number of volumes of Dilthey's works. Misch concluded his studies with Dilthey in Berlin in 1900 with a dissertation on Die philosophische Begründung des Positivismus in den Schriften von D’Alembert und Turgot. He worked as a professor in Marburg and Göttingen before retiring under pressure from the National Socialist government in 1935.
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Abu Bakr al-Razi
866 - 925 (59 years)
Abū Bakr al-Rāzī , , often known as Razi or by his Latin name Rhazes, also rendered Rhasis, was a physician, philosopher and alchemist who lived during the Islamic Golden Age. He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of medicine, and also wrote on logic, astronomy and grammar. He is also known for his criticism of religion, especially with regard to the concepts of prophethood and revelation. However, the religio-philosophical aspects of his thought, which also included a belief in five "eternal principles", are only recorded by authors who were often hostile t...
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Richard Avenarius
1843 - 1896 (53 years)
Richard Ludwig Heinrich Avenarius was a German-Swiss philosopher. He formulated the radical positivist doctrine of "empirical criticism" or empirio-criticism. Life Avenarius attended the Nicolaischule in Leipzig and studied at the University of Zurich, Berlin, and the University of Leipzig. At the University of Leipzig, he received the Doctor of Philosophy in 1868 with his thesis on Baruch Spinoza and his pantheism, obtained the habilitation in 1876 and taught there as Privatdozent. One year later, he became professor at the University of Zurich. He died in Zurich in 1896.
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Samuel Alexander
1859 - 1938 (79 years)
Samuel Alexander was an Australian-born British philosopher. He was the first Jewish fellow of an Oxbridge college. Early life Alexander was born at 436 George Street, in what is now the commercial heart of Sydney, Australia. He was the third son of Samuel Alexander, a prosperous saddler, and Eliza née Sloman. Both parents were Jewish. His father died just before he was born, and Eliza moved to the adjacent colony of Victoria in 1863 or 1864. They went to live at St Kilda, and Alexander was placed at a private school kept by a Mr Atkinson.
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Konstanty Michalski
1879 - 1947 (68 years)
Konstanty Michalski was a Polish Catholic theologian and philosopher. Life Michalski was a member of an order of missionary priests. From 1918 he was a professor of philosophy at—from 1931 rector of— Kraków's Jagiellonian University. From 1927 he was a member of the Polish Academy of Learning.
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Walter Burley
1275 - 1344 (69 years)
Walter Burley was an English scholastic philosopher and logician with at least 50 works attributed to him. He studied under Thomas Wilton and received his Master of Arts degree in 1301, and was a fellow of Merton College, Oxford until about 1310. He then spent sixteen years in Paris, becoming a fellow of the Sorbonne by 1324, before spending 17 years as a clerical courtier in England and Avignon. Burley disagreed with William of Ockham on a number of points concerning logic and natural philosophy. He was known as the Doctor Planus and Perspicuus.
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Baron d'Holbach
1723 - 1789 (66 years)
Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach , known as d'Holbach, was a Franco-German philosopher, encyclopedist and writer, who was a prominent figure in the French Enlightenment. He was born Paul Heinrich Dietrich in Edesheim, near Landau in the Rhenish Palatinate, but lived and worked mainly in Paris, where he kept a salon. He helped in the dissemination of "Protestant and especially German thought", particularly in the field of the sciences, but was best known for his atheism and for his voluminous writings against religion, the most famous of them being The System of Nature and The Universal Moral...
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Hans Freyer
1887 - 1969 (82 years)
Hans Freyer was a German conservative revolutionary sociologist and philosopher. Life Freyer began studying theology, national economics, history and philosophy at the University of Greifswald in 1907, with the aim of becoming a Lutheran theologian. A year later he moved to Leipzig, where he initially took the same courses, but then gave up the theological parts. He gained his doctorate in 1911. His early works on the philosophy of life had an influence on the German youth movement. In 1920 he qualified as a university lecturer, and in 1922 he became a professor at the university of Kiel.
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Dnyaneshwar
1275 - 1296 (21 years)
Sant Dnyaneshwar , also referred to as Dnyaneshwar, Dnyanadeva, Dnyandev or Mauli or Dnyaneshwar Vitthal Kulkarni , was a 13th-century Indian Marathi saint, poet, philosopher and yogi of the Nath and Varkari tradition. In his short life of 21 years, he authored Dnyaneshwari and Amrutanubhav. These are the oldest surviving literary works in the Marathi language, and considered to be milestones in Marathi literature. Sant Dnyaneshwar's ideas reflect the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta philosophy and an emphasis on Yoga and bhakti towards Vithoba, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. His legacy inspired...
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Hu Shih
1891 - 1962 (71 years)
Hu Shih , also known as Hu Suh in early references, was a Chinese diplomat, essayist and fiction writer, literary scholar, philosopher, and politician. Hu contributed to Chinese liberalism and language reform and advocated for the use of written vernacular Chinese. He participated in the May Fourth Movement and China's New Culture Movement. He was a president of Peking University. He had a wide range of interests such as literature, philosophy, history, textual criticism, and pedagogy. He was also a redology scholar.
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Paul of Venice
1369 - 1429 (60 years)
Paul of Venice was a Catholic philosopher, theologian, logician and metaphysician of the Order of Saint Augustine. Life Paul was born, according to the chroniclers of his order, at Udine, about 1369 and died at Venice on 15 June 1429, as Paolo Nicoletti. He joined the Augustinian Order at the age of 14, at the convent of Santo Stefano in Venice. In 1390 he is said to have been sent to Oxford for his studies in theology, but returned to Italy, and finished his course at the University of Padua, becoming a Doctor of Arts and Theology in 1405. He lectured in the Universities of Padua, Siena, Perugia, and Bologna during the first quarter of the fifteenth century.
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Arius Didymus
83 BC - 100 (183 years)
Arius Didymus was a Stoic philosopher and teacher of Augustus. Fragments of his handbooks summarizing Stoic and Peripatetic doctrines are preserved by Stobaeus and Eusebius. Life Arius was a citizen of Alexandria. Augustus esteemed him so highly, that after the conquest of Alexandria, he declared that he spared the city chiefly for the sake of Arius. According to Plutarch, Arius advised Augustus to execute Caesarion, the son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, with the words "ouk agathon polukaisarie" , a pun on a line in Homer.
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Aleksey Khomyakov
1804 - 1860 (56 years)
Aleksey Stepanovich Khomyakov was a Russian theologian, philosopher, poet and amateur artist. He co-founded the Slavophile movement along with Ivan Kireyevsky, and he became one of its most distinguished theoreticians. His son Nikolay Khomyakov was a speaker of the State Duma.
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Rachel Carson
1907 - 1964 (57 years)
Rachel Louise Carson was an American marine biologist, writer, and conservationist whose influential book Silent Spring and other writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement.
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Seiichi Hatano
1877 - 1950 (73 years)
Seiichi Hatano was a Japanese philosopher, best known for his work in the philosophy of religion dealing mostly with western religion and also western philosophical thoughts in theological aspects of Christianity.
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Christine Ladd-Franklin
1847 - 1930 (83 years)
Christine Ladd-Franklin was an American psychologist, logician, and mathematician. Early life and education Christine Ladd, sometimes known by the nickname "Kitty", was born on December 1, 1847, in Windsor, Connecticut, to Eliphalet, a merchant, and Augusta Ladd. During her early childhood, she lived with her parents and younger brother Henry in New York City. In 1853 the family moved back to Windsor, Connecticut, where her sister Jane Augusta Ladd McCordia was born the following year. Family correspondence shows that Augusta and one of her sisters were both staunch supporters of women's rights.
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William Osler
1849 - 1919 (70 years)
Sir William Osler, 1st Baronet, was a Canadian physician and one of the "Big Four" founding professors of Johns Hopkins Hospital. Osler created the first residency program for specialty training of physicians, and he was the first to bring medical students out of the lecture hall for bedside clinical training. He has frequently been described as the Father of Modern Medicine and one of the "greatest diagnosticians ever to wield a stethoscope". In addition to being a physician he was a bibliophile, historian, author, and renowned practical joker. He was passionate about medical libraries and ...
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Isaac Israeli ben Solomon
832 - 932 (100 years)
Isaac Israeli ben Solomon , also known as Isaac Israeli the Elder and Isaac Judaeus, was one of the foremost Jewish physicians and philosophers living in the Arab world of his time. He is regarded as the father of medieval Jewish Neoplatonism. His works, all written in Arabic and subsequently translated into Hebrew, Latin and Spanish, entered the medical curriculum of the early thirteenth-century universities in Medieval Europe and remained popular throughout the Middle Ages.
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Makkhali Gosala
484 BC - Present (2510 years)
Makkhali Gosala or Manthaliputra Goshalak was an ascetic ajivika teacher of ancient India. He was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and of Mahavira, the last and 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.
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Leonard Nelson
1882 - 1927 (45 years)
Leonard Nelson , sometimes spelt Leonhard, was a German mathematician, critical philosopher, and socialist. He was part of the neo-Friesian school of neo-Kantianism and a friend of the mathematician David Hilbert. He devised the Grelling–Nelson paradox in 1908 and the related idea of autological words with Kurt Grelling.
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Maurice O'Connor Drury
1907 - 1976 (69 years)
Maurice O'Connor Drury was a psychiatrist and follower of Ludwig Wittgenstein born in Marlborough, Wiltshire, England of Irish parents. He grew up in Exeter, Devon, England, where his father, Henry D'Olier Drury, who had been a teacher in Marlborough college, retired.
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François Châtelet
1925 - 1985 (60 years)
François Châtelet was a historian of philosophy, political philosophy and professor in the socratic tradition. He was the husband of philosopher Noëlle Châtelet, the sister of Lionel Jospin. Biography Châtelet was born and died in Paris. Along with Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze, he is at the origin of the department of philosophy at the University of Vincennes, and co-founded the Collège international de philosophie . In 1971 he was professor at the University of São Paulo. This was an act of protest that he made with Jean-Pierre Vernant against the Brazilian military government. Châtel...
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Philodemus
110 BC - 35 BC (75 years)
Philodemus of Gadara was an Epicurean philosopher and poet. He studied under Zeno of Sidon in Athens, before moving to Rome, and then to Herculaneum. He was once known chiefly for his poetry preserved in the Greek Anthology, but since the 18th century, many writings of his have been discovered among the charred papyrus rolls at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum. The task of excavating and deciphering these rolls is difficult, and work continues to this day. The works of Philodemus so far discovered include writings on ethics, theology, rhetoric, music, poetry, and the history of various philosophical schools.
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Diotima of Mantinea
450 BC - 300 BC (150 years)
Diotima of Mantinea is the name or pseudonym of an ancient Greek character in Plato's dialogue Symposium, possibly an actual historical figure, indicated as having lived circa 440 B.C. Her ideas and doctrine of Eros as reported by the character of Socrates in the dialogue are the origin of the concept today known as Platonic love.
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Herbert Spiegelberg
1904 - 1990 (86 years)
Herbert Spiegelberg was an American philosopher who played a prominent role in the advancement of phenomenogical philosophy in the United States. Life Spiegelberg was born in Strasbourg, in the Alsatian region of northeastern France. He studied at the universities of Heidelberg, Freiburg, and Munich, where he encountered Edmund Husserl and many others in the vanguard of the European phenomenological movement. He received his Ph.D. in 1928 from the University of Munich. His doctoral dissertation was written under the direction of the phenomenologist Alexander Pfänder and was titled Gesetz u...
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Alexander Pfänder
1870 - 1941 (71 years)
Alexander Pfänder was a German philosopher who was a member of the Munich phenomenological school. Biography Pfänder was born in Iserlohn and spent his entire academic career in Munich, where he was a student of Theodor Lipps and one of the founding members of the Munich circle of phenomenologists. As a professor Pfänder was also influential in conveying and promoting a version of phenomenology that differed from Edmund Husserl's "transcendental" orientation. His early phenomenological analysis of willinging in fact predated Husserl's breakthrough in phenomenology . In spite of his talents a...
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James Hutchison Stirling
1820 - 1909 (89 years)
James Hutchison Stirling was a Scottish idealist philosopher and physician. His work The Secret of Hegel gave great impetus to the study of Hegelian philosophy both in Britain and in the United States, and it was also accepted as an authoritative work on Hegel's philosophy in Germany and Italy. The book helped to create the philosophical movement known as British idealism.
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George Holmes Howison
1834 - 1916 (82 years)
George Holmes Howison was an American philosopher who established the philosophy department at the University of California, Berkeley and held the position there of Mills Professor of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy and Civil Polity. He also founded the Philosophical Union, one of the oldest philosophical organizations in the United States.
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Richard Congreve
1818 - 1899 (81 years)
Richard Congreve was the first English philosopher to openly espouse the Religion of Humanity, the godless form of religious humanism that was introduced by Auguste Comte, as a distinct form of positivism. Congreve was the first thinker to offer a systematic policy, on positivist lines, to dismantle the British Empire. In 1859, after issuing controversial anti-imperialist pamphlets on Gibraltar and India, he delivered his 'first sermon' as a Positivist apostle and 'vicar' of the Religion of Humanity. He later founded the London Positivist Society in 1867 and, after a schism with his closest f...
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Felix Kaufmann
1895 - 1949 (54 years)
Felix Kaufmann was an Austrian-American philosopher of law. Biography Kaufmann studied jurisprudence and philosophy in Vienna. He became part of the legal-philosophical school of Hans Kelsen. From 1922 to 1938 he was a Privatdozent at the University of Vienna. During this time Kaufmann was associated with the Vienna Circle. He also wrote on the foundations of mathematics where, along with Hermann Weyl and Oskar Becker, he was attempting to apply the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl to constructive mathematics.
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Ajita Kesakambali
500 BC - Present (2526 years)
Ajita Kesakambali was an Indian philosopher who taught during the 6th century BC. A contemporary of the Buddha and Mahariva, Kerakambali is considered the first proponent of Indian materialism. His influence can also be seen in the Lokayaya school of thought. No written records of Kerakambali’s teachings exist, but Buddhist sources reference him as believing that there is no gain from performing good deeds or charitable works because eventually all people will die.
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Peter Paul Rubens
1577 - 1640 (63 years)
Sir Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish artist and diplomat from the Duchy of Brabant in the Southern Netherlands . He is considered the most influential artist of the Flemish Baroque tradition. Rubens's highly charged compositions reference erudite aspects of classical and Christian history. His unique and immensely popular Baroque style emphasized movement, colour, and sensuality, which followed the immediate, dramatic artistic style promoted in the Counter-Reformation. Rubens was a painter producing altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects.
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William Pepperell Montague
1873 - 1953 (80 years)
William Pepperell Montague was a philosopher of the New Realist school. Montague stressed the difference between his philosophical peers as adherents of either "objective" and "critical realism". Montague was born in Chelsea, Massachusetts. He earned his bachelors, masters, and doctorate from Harvard University. He was professor of philosophy at UC Berkeley between 1899 and 1903, and at Columbia University from 1903 to 1947. He was president of the American Philosophical Association's eastern division in the years 1923–1924. He died in New York City.
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Benno Erdmann
1851 - 1921 (70 years)
Benno Erdmann was a German neo-Kantian philosopher, logician, psychologist and scholar of Immanuel Kant. Biography Erdmann received his Ph.D. in 1873 from the University of Berlin with a dissertation on Kant. The title of his thesis was Die Stellung des Dinges an sich in Kants Aesthetik und Analytik. Hermann von Helmholtz proposed Erdmann's publication Die Axiome der Geometrie as the basis for a habilitation. In 1878 he became an associate professor at the University of Berlin, in 1879 a full professor at the University of Kiel, and in 1884 he went to the University of Breslau, in 1890 to th...
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William of Sherwood
1200 - 1272 (72 years)
William of Sherwood or William Sherwood , with numerous variant spellings, was a medieval English scholastic philosopher, logician, and teacher. Little is known of his life, but he is thought to have studied in Paris, was a master at Oxford in 1252, treasurer of Lincoln from 1254/1258 onwards, and a rector of Aylesbury.
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Jan Hus
1369 - 1415 (46 years)
Jan Hus , sometimes anglicized as John Hus or John Huss, and referred to in historical texts as Iohannes Hus or Johannes Huss, was a Czech theologian and philosopher who became a Church reformer and the inspiration of Hussitism, a key predecessor to Protestantism, and a seminal figure in the Bohemian Reformation. Hus is considered to be the first Church reformer, even though some designate the theorist John Wycliffe. His teachings had a strong influence, most immediately in the approval of a reformed Bohemian religious denomination and, over a century later, on Martin Luther.
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Roscellinus
1050 - 1121 (71 years)
Roscelin of Compiègne , better known by his Latinized name Roscellinus Compendiensis or Rucelinus, was a French philosopher and theologian, often regarded as the founder of nominalism. Biography Roscellinus was born in Compiègne, France. Little is known of his life, and knowledge of his doctrines is mainly derived from Anselm and Abelard. He studied at Soissons and Reims, was afterwards attached to the cathedral of Chartres and became canon of Compiègne. As a monk of Compiègne, he was teaching as early as 1087. He had contact with Lanfranc, Anselm, and St. Ivo of Chartres.
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Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
1707 - 1788 (81 years)
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon was a French naturalist, mathematician, and cosmologist. He held the position of intendant at the Jardin du Roi, now called the Jardin des plantes. Buffon's works influenced the next two generations of naturalists, including two prominent French scientists Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Georges Cuvier. Buffon published thirty-six quarto volumes of his Histoire Naturelle during his lifetime, with additional volumes based on his notes and further research being published in the two decades following his death.
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Béla Hamvas
1897 - 1968 (71 years)
Béla Hamvas was a Hungarian writer, philosopher, and social critic. He was the first thinker to introduce the Traditionalist School of René Guénon to Hungary. Biography Béla Hamvas was born on 23 March 1897 in Eperjes, Sáros County, Kingdom of Hungary . His father, József Hamvas was a Lutheran pastor, teacher of German and Hungarian, journalist and writer. The family moved to Pozsony in 1898, where Hamvas completed his basic studies in 1915. After graduation, like his classmates, he entered voluntary military service and was sent to the front in Ukraine. He was sent back to Budapest for hosp...
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Anagarika Dharmapala
1864 - 1933 (69 years)
Anagārika Dharmapāla was a Sri Lankan Buddhist revivalist and a writer. Anagarika Dharmapāla is noted because he was:the first global Buddhist missionaryone of the founding contributors of non-violent Sinhalese Buddhist nationalisma leading figure in the Sri Lankan independence movement against British rulea pioneer in the revival of Buddhism in India after it had been virtually extinct for several centuriesthe first Buddhist in modern times to preach the Dhamma in three continents: Asia, North America, and Europe.Along with Henry Steel Olcott and Helena Blavatsky, the creators of the Theosop...
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Johann Augustus Eberhard
1739 - 1809 (70 years)
Johann Augustus Eberhard was a German theologian and "popular philosopher". Life and career Eberhard was born at Halberstadt in the Principality of Halberstadt, where his father was a school teacher and the singing master at the church of St. Martin's. He studied theology at the University of Halle, and became tutor to the eldest son of Baron von der Horst, to whose family he was attached for several years. In 1763 he was appointed co-rector of the school of St. Martin's, and second preacher in the hospital church of the Holy Ghost, but he soon resigned these offices and followed his patron to Berlin.
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Ignacio Ellacuría
1930 - 1989 (59 years)
Ignacio Ellacuría was a Spanish-Salvadoran Jesuit, philosopher, and theologian who worked as a professor and rector at the Universidad Centroamericana "José Simeón Cañas" , a Jesuit university in El Salvador founded in 1965. He and several other Jesuits and two others were assassinated by Salvadoran soldiers in the closing years of the Salvadoran Civil War.
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